Structured silicon anode

ABSTRACT

A battery can be fabricated from a substrate including silicon. This allows the battery to be produced as an integrated unit. The battery includes a anode formed from an array of spaced elongated structures, such as pillars, which include silicon and which can be fabricated on the substrate. The battery also includes a cathode which can include lithium.

This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 12/945,079 which wasfiled on Nov. 12, 2010 and which is still pending and the disclosure ofwhich is incorporated hereinto in its entirety by reference. Thatapplication was a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 12/074,642 which wasfiled on Mar. 4, 2008 and which issued on Nov. 30, 2011 as U.S. Pat. No.7,842,535. That patent was a division of U.S. application Ser. No.10/533,822 filed on Aug. 31, 2005 and which issued as U.S. Pat. No.7,402,829 on Jul. 22, 2008. That application was, in turn, the entryinto the national phase in the U.S. of International Application SerialNo. PCT/GB2003/004783 which was filed on 5 Nov. 2003. The InternationalApplication claims priority from British Application No. GB 0225779.8filed on 5 Nov. 2002.

The present invention relates to structured silicon anodes for lithiumbattery applications.

Silicon is recognised as a potentially high energy per unit volume hostmaterial for lithium in lithium battery applications¹. Attempts atrealising this potential have met with only partial success whennano-composites of silicon powder and carbon black have been used². Themajor technical problem associated with the use of silicon/lithiumappears to be the mechanical failure brought about by the repeated largevolume expansion associated with alloying^(1c,3). Metallic andintermetallic anodic host materials, other than layer materials such asgraphite, are reported to disintegrate after a few lithiuminsertion/extraction cycles^(3,4) unless in fine powder form (sub-micronrange). Since we are interested in finding a way to make a lithiumbattery integrated onto a silicon chip we need to find a solution tothis materials problem. It is envisaged that the principal applicationsarea for lithium batteries integrated into a chip would be in themedical field. Thus the well-developed practice of cochlea implantsappears to be an area that would benefit from an integrated batterysupply⁵.

This invention seeks to realise the potential of the silicon-lithiumsystem to allow the possibility of a lithium battery integrated on to asilicon chip.

Accordingly this invention provides a method of fabricating sub-micronsilicon electrode structures on a silicon wafer. Preferably thesestructures comprise pillars.

For a silicon-lithium system the basic cell diagram can be representedas Li|Li⁺-electrolyte|Si, for this cell the cathodic process is,discharge of lithium onto silicon to form an alloy (charging), and theanodic process is lithium extraction or de-alloying (discharging). TheEMF data reported by Wen and Huggins⁶ for the liquid system at 415° C.is shown bracketed below and the solid system at room temperature⁷ isshown un-bracketed below. Their results (in mV vs, Li) are:Si/Li₁₂Si₇-582 (332); Li₁₂Si₇/Li₇Si₃-520 (288); Li₇Si₃/Li₁₃Si₄-428(158); Li₁₃Si₄/Li₂₁Si₅-˜300 (44).

It will be appreciated that the formation of Li₁₂Si₇ in place of Siresults in a significant volume change (the alloy is 2.17 times bigger).On a conventional silicon wafer suitable for use as an anode for alithium battery this volume change leads to crack formation andpulverisation however due to their small size and configurationsub-micron anode structures made in accordance with the invention, arebe able to tolerate the conditions occasioned by the massive volumechanges occasioned by lithium alloying/de-alloying. In tests structuredelectrodes of sub micron diameter Si pillars maintained their structuralintegrity throughout the cycling whereas planar Si electrodes showedcracks (2 micron features) after 50 cycles. An appropriate sizerestriction to achieve suitable electrodes is that the silicon pillarsshould not exceed a fractional surface coverage (F) of ˜0.5.

An embodiment of the invention will now be described by way ofnon-limiting example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings,in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a structured electrode;

FIG. 2 shows one of a series of CV scan sets;

FIG. 3 shows results for a series of galvanostratic measurements;

FIG. 4 shows pictures of the structure;

FIG. 5 shows SEM pictures of the structure; and

FIG. 6 shows a lithium battery in accordance with the present invention.

The electrochemical discharge of lithium on silicon and its subsequentchemical reaction destroys the silicon lattice, giving rise to theswelling of the solid, producing amorphous Si/Li phases¹³. The first newphase to appear in the system is Li₁₂Si₇. This compound, and all therest up to Li, is a so-called Zintl-Phase Compound (ZPC), and consistsof simple, electropositive, cations and complex co-valently bound,multiply charged, electronegative, anions. Of course the charge ascribedto the “ions” is purely notional: the actual charge (depending upondefinition) is less than the formal value and may be considerably less,hence the bulk lithium will be referred to as Li° and bulk silicon asSi_(n)°.

It is important to form some idea of the mechanism of lithiation andde-lithiation of silicon. It is proposed that:

-   (i) Discharged lithium reacts with silicon forming a ZPC film with    atomically continuous contact to the silicon.-   (ii) Lithium excess diffuses (via a vacancy mechanism) through the    compact ZPC film to react with silicon at the Si/ZPC interface,    thickening the ZPC film, without void formation.

These processes might be represented by: Li⁺ (el)+e⁻ (solid)→Li (ads.);Li (ads.)+V (ZPC)→Li° (ZPC)_(s); Li° (ZPC)_(s)→diffusion→Li°(ZPC)_(ZPC/Si); x Li°+ySi°→ZPC (Li_(x/y)Si). (Li (ads) is Li adsorbed onZPC; V is a Li° vacancy in ZPC)

-   (iii) The amorphous¹³ ZPC film is deformable and so does not give    rise to significant stress induced cracking on volume change.

The diffusion coefficient, D, for Li in crystalline Si¹⁴ is ˜10⁻¹⁴cm²s⁻¹, Li in ZPC is expected to be faster; a value of D 10⁻¹² cm²s⁻¹would be enough to account for all the processes carried out in thisstudy. This model for ZPC film formation is in many ways analogous tothe model of SiO² layer formation on silicon due to Deal and Grove¹⁵:but the details are different and will be treated elsewhere.

The model for ZPC decomposition is, in broad terms, the reverse of theabove steps. Discharge of Li° at the electrolyte interface produces asurface vacancy in the ZPC. Locally Li° moves into the vacancy so thevacancy diffuses back to the ZPC/Si interface: at the interface Si_(n)rejoins the Si phase (where it is said to be polycrystalline¹³) andvacancies coalesce to produce larger void spaces. These spaces, as theycoalesce further and grow, give rise to the crack like features seen inthe SEM pictures in FIGS. 4 c, d and 5. Such a process has beendescribed by Beaulieu et al¹⁶ for lithium removal from silicon/tinalloys.

It has been shown that repeated Li alloying/de-alloying of planar Si canbe carried out without pulverisation of the substrate, cf. FIG. 5.However, as noted, the alloy/de-alloy process is limited by diffusionthrough the ZPC layer. In order to obtain charging rates suitable forvarious applications it is necessary to increase the surface area of theSi/electrolyte interface; and this has been done using pillarfabrication. Previous attempts using silicon particles have failedbecause the particle-to-particle contacts change and part with cycling².The pillar structures, on the other hand, are largely maintained asevidenced by the flatness of the pillar tops after 50 cycles, cf. FIG.4.

Efficiencies of <100% reported here are attributed mainly to reaction,on alloying, with the electrolyte, and to a lesser extent isolation ofregions of ZPC. The data presented here show that reduced currentdensity on both alloying and de-alloying results in improvingefficiency. It is supposed that this improvement comes mainly from areduced surface concentration of adsorbed Li on alloying and accessingall the lithium in the ZPC on de-alloying.

There is large scope for further increasing the surface-to-volume ratioof the pillar construction, for example, pillars of diameter (d) ˜0.3microns and 6 micron height (H). The pillar volume (v) would be, FH, andfor F=0.4, v=2.4×10⁻⁴ cc/cm², which is equivalent, when converted toLi₁₂Si₇, to a capacity of 3.81×10³ v=914 microAhrcm⁻². The surface areaof such a pillar structure is ˜4 FH/d, which is the basis of the muchimproved characteristics.

To make structures in accordance with the invention the following methodmay be used, namely “Island Lithography” as disclosed in internationalpatent No. WO01/13414. This method employs cesium chloride as the resistin the lithographic step in the fabrication of pillar arrays. It worksas follows. A thin film of CsC1 is vacuum deposited on the clean,hydrophilic, surface of the Si substrate. This system is then exposed tothe atmosphere at a controlled relative humidity. A multilayer of wateradsorbes on the surface, the CsC1 is soluble in the water layer (beingmore soluble at places of higher radius of curvature). The CsC1re-organises into a distribution of hemispherical islands, driven by theexcess surface energy associated with CsC1 surface curvature. Sucharrays are useful in making structures for various studies involvingnano-scale phenomena. In this case reactive ion etching is preferablyused, with the islands acting as X masks so that removal of thesurrounding silicon forms the desired pillar structures.

A study of the kinetics of the formation of island arrays has beencarried out on GaAs surfaces⁹ and more recently, and more extensively,on Si/SiO₂ surfaces¹⁰ where the technique and results are described indetail. The process variables are: CsC1 film thickness (L); humidity(RH), time of exposure (t). The resulting island array has a Gaussiandistribution of diameters, average diameter (<d>) standard deviation(±s) and surface fractional coverage (F). Having made the CsC1 resistarray the next step is reactive ion etching (RIE) to produce thecorresponding array of pillars¹¹. The RIE process variables are:feed-gas composition, flow rate and chamber pressure; RF power; dc bias;etch time. The results are characterised by the etch depth,corresponding to pillar height (H), and the wall angle, namely the anglethat the pillar wall makes with the wafer plane; it is chosen in thisstudy to be close to 90°. The examples reported in this work were etchedin a Oxford Plasmalab 80 apparatus. The etch gas was (O₂:Ar:CHF₃) in theratio 1:10:20; feed rate 20 sccm; chamber pressure, 50 milli pascals; RFpower, 73 watts; dc bias 200V.

The pillar structure reported in this study (K-series) was characterisedas <d>=580 nm±15 nm; F=0.34; H=810 nm: it was made using, L=80 nm;RH=40%; t=17.5 hrs. After fabrication the silicon samples were washed inwater; etched for 20 seconds in NH₄OH (28 w % NH₃): H₂O₂ (100 v/v): H₂Oin equal volume ratios; the etchant was flooded away with de-ionizedwater and blow dried.

Of course the structures may also be fabricated by other knowntechniques, such as photolithography, which produce regular arrays offeatures rather than the scattered distribution produced by islandlithography.

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a structured electrode, in accordance withthe invention and as used in the following tests, it shows a partsectional view of the anode in which the pillars 2 can clearly be seenon the silicon wafer 3.

FIG. 6 shows a lithium battery, comprising a typical embodiment of thepresent invention, and including an anode 1, a cathode 4, a polymerelectrolyte 5, a first strip 6 representing a rectifier circuitconnected to a coil encircling the anode for charging purposes, a secondstrip 7 representing the output circuit (driven by the battery), and apair of wires 8 for connection to the device to be driven.

Electrochemical tests were performed in a three-electrode, glass, cellwhere the Si sample is the working electrode and metallic Li is used forboth the counter and reference electrodes. A 1 M solution of LiC1O₄(Merck Selectipurâ) in ethylene carbonate:diethyl carbonate (MerckSelectipurâ), (1:1) w/w solvent was used as the electrolyte. The cellwas assembled under a dry argon atmosphere in a glove box. Ohmic contactwas made to the rear side of the silicon samples electrodes using a 1:1In—Ga eutectic alloy¹². The electrode area was delineated using anO-ring configuration in a PTFE holder. No adhesive is used and a goodelectrolyte/atmosphere seal is obtained. In an earlier study we foundthat epoxy adhesive, used to mount a Si electrode, contaminated theactive electrode surface causing spurious currents at high voltages(>2V).

Electrochemical behavior of the cell was investigated by cyclicvoltammetry (CV) and by galvanostatic measurement (voltage vs. time atconstant current), using an electrochemical workstation (VMPPerkinElmer™ Instruments). The capacity referred to here is the totalcharge inserted into the projected electrode surface area exposed to theelectrolyte (this ignores any surface area due to structuring), given asμAhcm⁻² (micro Amp hours cm⁻²).

The results obtained were:

The response of the Li|Li⁺-electrolyte|Si cell was measured: for thiscell the cathodic process is, discharge of lithium onto silicon to forman alloy (charging), and the anodic process is lithium extraction orde-alloying (discharging). FIG. 2 shows one series of CV scan sets(details in caption). The first cycle, and to quite a large extent thesecond, differs from those that follow. It is conjectured that thisdifference is due to a “formation” effect, associated with the filmingof the electrode during the first Li discharge. After the first andsecond cycles, the scans assume a repeatable general shape. Since theseare scans in which the potential is changed slowly and the currentdensities are therefore small, there are no IR drop or diffusionoverpotential terms, and assuming no activation overpotential, theelectrode potential is a measure of the surface lithium activity. Thefirst cathodic feature is the rapid increase in current at ˜330 mV that,according to room temperature data⁷, corresponds to the presence ofLi₁₂Si₇. The lowest potential reached is 25 mV and this is taken to beassociated with the presence of higher Li compounds, e.g. Li₂₁Si₅. Thecycling sequence shows a progressive “activation” of the sample,associated with increasing breakdown of the crystalline siliconstructure (see discussion). The anodic, part of the CV curve isassociated with progressive de-lithiation of the electrode according tothe various ZPC equilibrium potentials. For a scan rate of 1 mVs⁻¹ thecapacity (260 μAhcm⁻²) of the electrodes is roughly comparable to thepillar volume being converted to Li₁₂Si₇, while for the slower scanrates the capacity exceeds that of the pillar volume. The latter resultspoint to the participation of the substrate in the alloying/de-alloyingprocess. FIG. 3 shows the results for a series of galvanostraticmeasurements on structured Si at two different charge/discharge currentdensities (details in caption).

FIG. 4 shows the structure of the K-series of silicon electrodes thatwere used in this study and the effects of extensive galvanostaticcycling upon that structure. The structure are clearly intact, but atthe higher current density slight cracking of the bulk Si surface, belowthe pillars, is observed.

FIG. 5 shows the SEM pictures of the structures obtained on planar(un-pillared) Si electrodes before cycling and, separately, aftergalvanostatic cycling. When cycled at the lower current densities, thesurface is deformed, though crack formation does not occur. Cycling athigher current densities produces wide cracks.

REFERENCES

1. (a): R. A. Sharma and R. N. Seefurth, J. Electrochem. Soc., 123, 763(1976); (b): B. A. Boukamp, G. C. Lash and R. A. Huggins, J.Electrochem. Soc., 128, 725 (1981); (c): R. A. Huggins, Lithium AlloyAnodes in “Handbook of Battery Materials”, J. O. Besenhard Ed,Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 359 (1999); (d): S. Bourderau, T. Brousse and D. M.Schleich, J. Power Sources, 233, 81 (1999); (e): O. Z. Zhuo, Bo Bao andS. Sinha, U.S. Pat. No. 6,334,939 B1 Jan. 1, 2002: There are many otherpatents relating to the use of various host materials for Li anodes.

2. Hong Li, Xuejie Huang, Liquan Chen, Zhengang Wu and Yong Liang,Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 2, 547 (1999).

3. J. O. Besenhard, J. Yang and M. Winter, J. Power Sources, 68, 87(1997)

4. L. Y. Beaulieu, D. Larcher, R. A. Dunlap and J. R. Dahn, J.Electrochem. Soc., 147, 3206 (2000).

5. J. K. Niparko (Editor), “Cochlea Implants”, Pub., Lippincott Williamsand Wilkins, Philadelphia, (2000)

6. C. J. Wen and R. A. Huggins, J. Solid State Chem., 37, 271 (1981).

7. W. J. Weydanz, M. Wohlfahrt-Mehrens and R. A. Huggins, J. PowerSources 81-82, 237 (1999).

8. J-P. Colinge, “Silicon-on-Insulator Technology: Materials to VLSI”,Kluwer Acad. Pub, Boston, Chapter 2, (1991).

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1-8. (canceled)
 9. An electrode for a battery comprising a plurality ofsilicon-comprising elongated structures extending from a substrate andarranged to engage with a lithium-based cathode and a lithium-basedelectrolyte.
 10. An electrode as claimed in claim 9 wherein theelongated structures have a gravimetric capacity of at least 780 mAh/gfor the first 10 cycles.
 11. An electrode as claimed in claim 9 whereinthe elongated structures have a gravimetric capacity of at least 620mAh/g for the first 50 cycles.
 12. An electrode as claimed in claim 9wherein the elongated structures have a volumetric capacity of at least1800 mAh/cm³ for the first 10 cycles.
 13. An electrode as claimed inclaim 9 wherein the elongated structures have a volumetric capacity ofat least 1450 μAh/cm³ for the first 50 cycles.
 14. An electrode asclaimed in claim 9 wherein the electrode is arranged to tolerate theconditions occasioned by the volume changes caused bycharging/discharging.
 15. An electrode as claimed in claim 9 wherein theelongated structures do not exceed a fractional coverage of 0.5 of thesubstrate.
 16. An electrode as claimed in claim 9 wherein the elongatedstructures have a diameter of 0.1 to 1.0 microns.
 17. An electrode asclaimed in claim 9 wherein the elongated structures have a lengthgreater than 1 micron.
 18. An electrode as claimed in claim 9 whereinthe elongated structures have an aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio)in the range 1 to
 100. 19. A lithium-ion battery electrode comprising: aplurality of spaced elongated structures each attached at one end to asubstrate and extending away therefrom, wherein the elongated structurescomprise silicon.
 20. A lithium-ion battery electrode as claimed inclaim 19 wherein the elongated structures have a gravimetric capacity ofat least 620 mAh/g for the first 50 cycles.
 21. A lithium-ion batteryelectrode as claimed in claim 19 wherein the elongated structures have avolumetric capacity of at least 1450 μAh/cm³ for the first 50 cycles.22. An energy storage device comprising: a plurality ofsilicon-comprising elongated structures extending from a substrate; anda cathode, wherein the elongated structures are arranged to tolerate theconditions occasioned by the volume charges caused bycharging/discharging with lithium.
 23. An energy storage device asclaimed in claim 22 wherein the elongated structures have a gravimetriccapacity of at least 620 mAh/g for the first 50 cycles.